I. Facts and Experience of World Cultural Modernization

The cultural modernization mentioned in this report refers to the modernization in the cultural field. The cultural field is a field related to the creation, production, dissemination, provision, conservation and consumption of cultures, among the 6 fields of human society. The 6 fields are respectively economy, society, politics, culture, environment and personal behavior. There’re now more than 100 definitions of culture. And this report attempts to understand it from the perspective of operation: culture is a complex of knowledge, institution and ideas that influences and explains human life styles. Cultural modernization is a complex process of the formation, development, transformation and international interaction of modern culture. This report makes time series analysis, cross-sectional analysis and process analysis of the 3 centuries’ history of the world cultural modernization (from 1700 to 2006); it covers the pure culture, cultural facilities, cultural industries and other cultures in analysis, concerning the cultural life, the cultural structure, the cultural system and the cultural ideas, as well as long-term trend, the world’s frontier and international gap. There’re 15 country samples for time series analysis, and 130 country samples and 118 cultural variables for cross-sectional analysis in 2001; other samples for cross-sectional analysis are major countries holding related data for the year. Through systematic analysis, 54 facts, 12 inspirations and 14 pieces of historical experience are listed.

1. Basic facts of the world cultural modernization

The objective facts of the world cultural modernization can be demonstrated at different levels and in various sub-fields.

Firstly, in the field of pure culture. Since the 18th century, languages have kept changing; after classical language, modern language and post-modern language, the types of languages have been diminishing. Adult literacy rate has been increased and already reach 100% in some countries. Schools of literature have also continuously changed, covering classical literature, romanticist literature, realistic literature, modern literature and post-modern literature. Changes in the schools of art caused the appearance of classical art, romanticist art, modern art and post-modern art. The continuous transformation of philosophy led to the growth of classical philosophy, modern philosophy and post-modern philosophy. The religion continues, showing the trend of religious pluralism and religion secularization in some countries. Revolution of science and technology has taken place for many times, seeing rapid development of the scientific culture. Since 1970s, the Green Culture and Internet Culture have also emerged.

Secondly, in the field of cultural facilities. Since the 18th century, the types and number of cultural locations have been increasing, with more types and greater number of cultural organizations. Since the 19th century, the types of cultural equipment have been increasing, with higher popularization; the types of information equipment have been increasing, with higher popularization; and the types of sports and entertainment equipment have been increasing, with the continuing development of tourist, educational and technological facilities. Since the 20th century, protection of the nature and cultural heritages has been strengthened.

Thirdly, in the field of cultural industries. Since the 18th century, the world circulation of newspapers has been rising, but that circulation in developed countries have turned from rising to falling. Since the 19th century, publication of books has been growing, with an annual growth rate about of 2%; the broadcast coverage has been rising, with higher production of movies; and industries of leisure and entertainment have kept growing. Since the 20th century, TV coverage has been increasing, with more time spent in watching TV; in late 20th century, new media industries and online games grew fast; there were also growth in the added value of cultural industries, employment rate in cultural industries and cultural trading.

Fourthly, in the field of political culture and economic culture. Since the 18th century, there has been a rise in democratic culture and the degree of democratization; in late 20th century, the government informatization grew rapidly. Since the 19th century, there have been less time for work and more time for relaxation each week; the number and proportion of child labors have both decreased; the equality of distribution in developed countries has decreased and then increased, with great international gap in the culture of consumption; the proportion of industrial labor force in developed countries have risen, then fallen; and modern corporate culture has been developing.

Fifthly, in the field of social culture and individual culture. Since the 18th century, the population growth rate in developed countries have first risen and then fallen, with education popularization and the proportion of the population with higher education rising; in developed countries, the proportion of those who have received secondary education has first risen and then fallen. Since the 19th century, the coverage of social insurance has been rising, together with the rising of expenses on social welfare; some countries have witnessed smaller family scales, as well as lower total fertility. Since the 20th century, some countries have seen higher contraception rates and divorce rates, and lower marriage rates; some countries have found smoking prevalence first rising and then falling.

Sixthly, in the field of ecological culture and international culture. Since the 19th century, the number and area proportion of national reserves have been rising; in the 20th century, more people supported environmental protection and waste recycling. Since the 19th century, there have been more and more international organizations and international conferences, as well as more international travels and sports exchanges, and international students. In the 20th century, there were more books translated from some foreign language and more international migrants.

Seventhly, in the field of cultural policies. Since the 18th century, cultural democratization has been developing, with stronger protection of intellectual property rights. Since the 19th century, cultural investment has become diversified, with part of the national government’s investment in culture increasing; the scientific culture and the humanistic culture has been separated, the former exerting greater and greater function. In the 20th century, more countries were admitted into the international covenant on culture, ensuring greater protection of the world cultural heritage and intangible culture heritage, as well as more cooperation in international culture; there were diversified cultural policies, cultural diversity were under protection, and cultural freedom were more respected.

Eighthly, integrated facts of cultural modernization. Since the 18th century, cultural life and cultural contents have continued to change, and so it is with the cultural system and cultural ideas. Cultural change doesn’t happen linearly, but in multiple ways, so that some traditional cultures can be retained and inherited. Since the 19th century, the competitiveness and influence of national culture have been changing. In late 20th century, the proportion of added value and employment rate in some national cultural industries outran those in agriculture.

The analysis of the 3 centuries’ process of modernization in the cultural field included in this report concerns 118 cultural variables. The above summaries about objective facts of cultural modernization are merely the tip of an iceberg.

2. Historical experience of the world cultural modernization

The 300 years of history of the world cultural modernization not only offer us facts and inspirations, but also include rich experience and lessons, which can be used as historical reference. In this report, we’ll attach importance to those significant experiences.

Firstly, cultural modernization is both a historical necessity and a cultural choice. As for the human culture, cultural modernization is a historical necessity, representing the major direction of human culture’s development. For different countries and nations, cultural modernization is a cultural choice. And cultural choice is a fundamental right of the human. All nations and countries are entitled to cultural choice. But the cultural choice of any nation or country should not be at the cost of the cultural choice of other nations and countries. Countries and nations that choose cultural modernization will voluntarily promote it. While those who don’t do that will stay at the phase of original culture, traditional culture or primitive culture, so that there will be greater gap between them and the frontier of the human culture. All nations and countries need to be responsible for their own choices.

Secondly, cultural modernization enjoys both national benefit and market competition. The culture is of two attributes. ① The attribute of nation. The culture can be used as the identity mark (cultural identity) of a nation or country, showing its cultural rights and interests. ②The attribute of commodity. The culture can also be a commodity, which can be produced and traded for profits based on market demands. Cultural changes can be affected both by national benefits and market competition. Cultural duality will surely lead to the duality of cultural modernization. The duality of cultural modernization is shown as: it should protect both the cultural rights and interests and cultural creativity of a nation, and enhance the quality of cultural life and cultural competitiveness. These two aspects are usually in consistency. There’re two orientations in the process of cultural modernization: national benefit and market demand. Different countries have different measures about the duality of cultural modernization. Some countries stress their cultural rights and interests, while some others emphasize the attribute of commodity in culture. There are other attributes of cultures certainly.

Thirdly, cultural modernization not only shows high diversity, but sometimes convergence. The major manifestations of the diversity of cultural modernization are mainly as follows: ① Cultural modernization in different countries and different fields have different features; ② The world culture is diversified; ③ Many countries, including developed countries, also hold diversified cultures; ④The styles of cultural life are also diversified. The major manifestations of the convergence of cultural modernization include: ① The cultural facilities, cultural industries, scientific technologies, economic cultures and ecological cultures in different countries show certain convergence; ② The quality of cultural life bears some convergence; ③ There’s some convergence in the international culture and system; ④ Some convergence can be found in industrial culture, urban culture and Internet culture. Despite the diversity of cultural modernization, there’re general laws for it.

Fourthly, cultural modernization goes ahead of the rest. ① The beginning of cultural modernization was earlier than that of world modernization. Generally, cultural modernization can be dated back to the Renaissance, Religious Reform, Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment; the Enlightenment was the starting point of cultural modernization, as well as the guidance of European modernization and world modernization. The starting point of the world modernization was British Industrial Revolution. ② According to the experience of developed countries, ideological emancipation always precedes modernization. British Industrial Revolution, American Revolution and French Revolution all came after the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment.③ In developing countries, economic growth and social progress can push on cultural modernization.

Fifthly, cultural innovation is the ultimate source of cultural modernization. Without cultural innovation, cultural modernization will be just water without a source. At the frontier of human culture, cultural modernization is mainly a natural evolution; however, natural evolution doesn’t like the rotation of some celestial body, but is promoted by innovation and innovation diffusion. As a matter of fact, any revolutionary advancement of cultural modernization is the outcome of major innovations and innovation diffusions.

Sixthly, cultural modernization is not monotonous but colorful. Cultural modernization can be either rapid or comparatively slow; it can be a revolutionary sudden change or a gradual one; it can be a quiet change or a heart-stirring social movement. For instance, the cultural changes caused by the French Revolution in the 18th century and the Student’s Movement in the US and Europe in 1960s were of obvious features of revolution. Changes in the environmental culture brought about by the Environmental Movement in 1970s were of the nature of social movement. And the changes in Internet culture triggered by Information Revolution in 1980s and 1990s were also of the characteristics of revolution. But surely, the cultural revolution caused by Information Revolution was of no violence, but showed the explosive trend of informatization, so it was a peaceful cultural revolution.

Seventhly, study of cultural modernization should avoid linear thinking. Cultural modernization is multi-dimensional, and changes in different cultural fields can show different features. Some cultural changes, like the turn of cultural insititutions and ideas, are non-linear. That includes the turns from traditional culture to modern culture, from modern culture to post-modern culture, and from material culture to ecological culture. Some cultural changes are partly linear, such as the developments in science and technology, cultural knowledge, cultural facilities and cultural industries. Cultural modernization is partly reversible, and in certain conditions, it can have partial reversion. Therefore, cultural modernization should avoid unilateral and mechanical thinking.

Eighthly, Cultural modernization should not avoid from international interaction. Cultural modernization is not isolated, but an international cultural interaction, including international cooperation, exchange, competition and conflicts in culture. No country had not absorbed cultural elements from other countries in the cultural modernization; and no country would repulse international cultural exchange and cooperation for its cultural modernization. Different countries feature different levels of cultural competitiveness and influence, and developed countries are of greater cultural competitiveness.

Ninthly, No best model of cultural modernization could be copy, but there’re successful experiences that can be refer to. There’s no optimal model of cultural modernization, but rational choice and path dependency for cultural modernization. Cultural modernization is of one nature, but various forms. And the goal of cultural modernization is the same, but there can be diversified paths to it. The requirements of cultural modernization are uniform, but they can be in different modes. Different countries hold different languages, literatures, arts, philosophies, religions, laws, cultural systems and traditions, with disparate cultural policies and choices, thus they cannot be imitated blindly. Leading countries of cultural modernization left great experience for later countries to learn from.

Tenthly, comparison of the levels of cultural modernization could not be simply carried out. Cultural modernization includes changes in language, literature, art, philosophy and religion, which make it difficult for international comparison and historial comparison. The international comparison of cultural modernization can only be made within certain scopes, like in cultural life, cultural facilities and cultural industries.

Eleventhly, cultural modernization doesn’t mean all-round denial of the traditional culture. Cultural modernization should not cut off the connection between traditional and modern cultures, or deny and reject traditional culture in an all-round way, or fully develop the traditional culture; instead, it’s the partial inheritance and development of traditional culture, the partial denial and transition of traditional culture, and rational protection and effective use of traditional culture. In the process of cultural modernization, traditional culture continues to exist and exert its function. For instance, classical science, classical philosophy, classical arts, classical literature, religion, language and world cultural heritage are now important contents of teaching materials in schools of different levels; and classical arts, classical literature, ordinary cultural heritage and intangible cultural heritage are all important resources of cultural industries.

Twelfthly, cultural modernization doesn’t refer to damage of cultural heritage, but rational protection and utilization of cultural heritage. In the course of cultural modernization, the understanding of the functions of cultural heritage is gradually deepening. The functions of cultural heritage include: the important element in the identity of national culture, the important source of cultural innovation, the important resource of cultural industries, the part of cultural diversity, and the significant component of cultural competitiveness and influence. Cultural globalization not necessarily impairs the function of cultural heritage, but present its international significance. Rational protection and efficient use of cultural heritage is an organic and indispensable part of cultural modernization.

Thirteenthly, there’re five changes included in cultural modernization. ① Cultural centralization, which means the central positions of a few powerful cultures are stabilized. The cultural diversity exists at the same time. ② Cultural marginalization, which means the social positions and international influences of some cultures are made getting from bad to worse. ③ Cultural heritage making, which refers to some cultures losing their social functions and being protected as cultural heritages. ④ Cultural disappearing, meaning some cultures are lost because of being denied of inheritance, record or protection. ⑤ Cultural commercialization, meaning commercialized and trading of cultural carriers and elements. The 5 changes of the world culture lead to the structure change of the world cultural system, and the international competitiveness and influence of different cultures has changed correspondingly.

Fourteenth, cultural competitiveness has gradually become the core competitive force of a nation. Generally, cultural modernization includes two phases, namely, differentiation and dedifferentiation. Cultural differentiation means the culture differentiated from the whole society to become a relatively independent field, just like the fields of politics and economy. An independent cultural field is an autonomous field, mainly presented in the specialization and professionalization of culture. Cultural dedifferentiation means the fusion of culture and society, and of culture and economy. The blurring of the boundaries between culture and society and economy is mainly demonstrated through cultural economization, economic culturalization, cultural socialization and social culturalization. Cultural differentiation grants the culture an independent position. And cultural dedifferentiation leads to the culture penetrating into the whole society, and cultural competitiveness becoming a core competitive force of a nation.